Famous Psychologists: A Comprehensive Guide for Psychology Students

Q: What are the main approaches in psychology?

The main approaches in psychology include: Psychodynamic, Behaviorist, Cognitive, Humanistic, Biological, Evolutionary, Social-cultural, and Positive psychology.

Q: Which psychologists are important for A-Level psychology?

A-Level psychology typically covers Sigmund Freud, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, Albert Bandura, Jean Piaget, Alan Baddeley, Adrian Raine, John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, Stanley Milgram, Philip Zimbardo, Carl Rogers, and Abraham Maslow.

Q: Why is Sigmund Freud so influential in psychology?

Sigmund Freud remains influential for proposing that unconscious forces drive human behavior. He developed psychoanalysis, introduced concepts like the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and dream analysis, and influenced therapy, psychiatry, and culture.

Q: Which psychologists contributed to our understanding of child development?

Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Erik Erikson, John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, Lawrence Kohlberg, and Urie Bronfenbrenner all made significant contributions to child development theory.

Q: What is cognitive psychology and who are its key figures?

Cognitive psychology studies mental processes like memory and perception. Key figures include Ulric Neisser, George Miller, Alan Baddeley, Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, Elizabeth Loftus, Albert Bandura, and Daniel Kahneman.

Q: How did different psychologists contribute to our understanding of memory?

Hermann Ebbinghaus, Frederic Bartlett, George Miller, Alan Baddeley, Elizabeth Loftus, Endel Tulving, and Eric Kandel each contributed to understanding memory's mechanisms, capacity, structure, and reliability.

Psychology as a formal discipline has evolved dramatically since its inception in the late 19th century. Throughout this journey, certain influential figures have shaped our understanding of the human mind and behaviour in profound ways. This guide provides psychology students with an overview of the field’s most significant contributors, organised by their theoretical orientations, to help you understand the development of psychological thought and the relationships between different approaches.

Introduction

The study of psychology encompasses a remarkable diversity of perspectives on human thought, emotion, and behavior. From early philosophers who pondered the nature of consciousness to modern scientists conducting sophisticated brain imaging studies, the field has been shaped by brilliant minds seeking to understand what makes us human.

This guide presents key figures who have defined major theoretical approaches in psychology. For each psychologist, you’ll find a brief biography, their main theoretical contributions, and their lasting influence on the field. Understanding these pioneers and their ideas provides not only historical context but also insight into the foundations upon which contemporary psychological theory and practice are built.

Early Foundations of Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

Category: Structuralism
Biography: German physiologist and philosopher who established the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig in 1879, an event often considered the official beginning of psychology as a separate scientific discipline.
Key Contributions: Wundt pioneered the experimental method in psychology, focusing on the structure of conscious experience through controlled introspection. He trained many influential psychologists and published extensively, including his foundational text “Principles of Physiological Psychology” (1874).
Legacy: Often called the “father of experimental psychology,” Wundt helped establish psychology as a scientific discipline distinct from philosophy and physiology.

William James (1842-1910)

Category: Functionalism/Pragmatism
Biography: American philosopher and psychologist who taught at Harvard University for 35 years. James came from a distinguished intellectual family (his brother was the novelist Henry James) and initially studied medicine before turning to psychology and philosophy.
Key Contributions: Author of the monumental 1,200-page text “The Principles of Psychology” (1890), which became a fundamental resource in the field. James developed the concept of the “stream of consciousness” and promoted a functionalist approach that examined the purpose of behavior and mental processes rather than their structure alone.
Legacy: James helped establish psychology in America and developed pragmatism as a philosophical approach. His focus on the practical utility of consciousness and behavior laid groundwork for later behavioral approaches, while his interest in individual experience influenced humanistic psychology.

Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approaches

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Category: Psychoanalysis
Biography: Austrian neurologist who began his career researching neurophysiology before developing psychoanalysis. Freud lived and worked in Vienna until 1938, when the Nazi annexation of Austria forced him to flee to London, where he died in 1939.
Key Contributions: Freud proposed that psychological problems stemmed from unconscious conflicts and repressed desires, often rooted in childhood experiences. He developed techniques like free association and dream analysis to access unconscious material, and outlined psychosexual stages of development. His structural model of the mind included the id, ego, and superego.
Legacy: Despite ongoing controversies about his methods and theories, Freud’s impact on psychology, psychiatry, and Western culture has been enormous. He introduced the concept of the unconscious mind into popular discourse and developed talk therapy approaches that influenced numerous therapeutic modalities. Read our in-depth article on Sigmund Freud here.

Carl Jung (1875-1961)

Category: Analytical Psychology
Biography: Swiss psychiatrist who was initially a close colleague of Freud before breaking away to develop his own approach. Jung had a deep interest in mythology, religion, and Eastern philosophy that informed his psychological theories.
Key Contributions: Jung expanded the concept of the unconscious to include not just personal repressed material, but also a collective unconscious shared by all humans. He developed the concepts of archetypes (universal symbolic patterns), psychological types (including introversion/extraversion), and individuation (the process of integrating unconscious elements into consciousness).
Legacy: Jung’s ideas have influenced psychotherapy, personality theory, literature, art, and religious studies. His concepts of psychological types formed the basis for the widely used Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Category: Neo-Freudian/Developmental
Biography: German-American developmental psychologist who studied with Anna Freud. Though lacking formal academic credentials in psychology, Erikson became a major figure at institutions including Harvard, Yale, and the University of California.
Key Contributions: Erikson expanded Freud’s psychosexual stages into a comprehensive theory of psychosocial development spanning the entire lifespan. He outlined eight stages, each characterized by a specific developmental crisis or challenge, from basic trust vs. mistrust in infancy to integrity vs. despair in old age.
Legacy: Erikson significantly expanded developmental psychology beyond childhood and introduced concepts like “identity crisis” that have become part of common language. His life-span approach influenced later developmental theorists and remains fundamental to understanding human development. Read our in-depth article on Erik Erikson here.

Behaviorism

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Category: Classical Conditioning
Biography: Russian physiologist whose work laid the groundwork for behaviorism, though he himself was not formally a psychologist. Pavlov won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for his research on digestive processes.
Key Contributions: While studying digestion in dogs, Pavlov discovered the phenomenon of classical conditioning—the process by which a previously neutral stimulus (like a bell) comes to elicit a response (salivation) after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food). This demonstrated how reflexive behaviors could be conditioned through association.
Legacy: Pavlov’s work provided a scientific framework for understanding how environmental stimuli influence behavior, shifting psychology away from introspection toward observable phenomena. His methodology became a model for objective behavioral research. Read our in-depth article on Ivan Pavlov here.

John B. Watson (1878-1958)

Category: Methodological Behaviorism
Biography: American psychologist who established behaviorism as a dominant force in American psychology. After a scandal ended his academic career, Watson went on to become a successful advertising executive.
Key Contributions: Watson published “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” (1913), often called the “Behaviorist Manifesto,” rejecting introspection and consciousness as topics for scientific study and advocating for a psychology focused solely on observable behavior. His famous “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated how emotional responses could be conditioned in humans.
Legacy: Watson helped shift American psychology toward an objective, behavior-based approach and away from consciousness and introspection. His emphasis on how environment shapes behavior influenced education, child-rearing practices, and therapeutic approaches.

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Category: Radical Behaviorism
Biography: American psychologist who became the most influential behaviorist of the 20th century. Skinner spent most of his career at Harvard University and remained active in research and writing until his death.
Key Contributions: Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning, demonstrating how behaviors are shaped by their consequences. He invented the “Skinner box” to study reinforcement schedules and extended behaviorist principles to complex human behaviors, including language acquisition. His works include “The Behavior of Organisms” (1938) and “Verbal Behavior” (1957).
Legacy: Skinner’s emphasis on reinforcement rather than punishment has had lasting effects on approaches to education, parenting, and behavioral therapy. His behavior modification techniques remain essential components of contemporary approaches to behavior change. Read our in-depth article on B.F. Skinner here.

Cognitive Psychology

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Category: Developmental/Cognitive
Biography: Swiss psychologist who began his career studying natural history and philosophy. Piaget’s observations of his own children sparked his interest in cognitive development, leading to his groundbreaking theoretical work.
Key Contributions: Piaget developed a comprehensive theory of cognitive development proposing that children’s thinking develops through distinct stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. He introduced concepts such as schemas, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration to explain how children actively construct their understanding of the world.
Legacy: Piaget transformed our understanding of child development and learning, emphasizing that children think differently from adults rather than simply knowing less. His constructivist approach has profoundly influenced educational practices worldwide. Read our in-depth article on Jean Piaget here.

Noam Chomsky (b. 1928)

Category: Cognitive/Linguistics
Biography: American linguist, cognitive scientist, and political activist. As Institute Professor Emeritus at MIT, Chomsky revolutionized the study of language and made significant contributions to cognitive psychology.
Key Contributions: Chomsky challenged behaviorist explanations of language acquisition with his theory of universal grammar, proposing that humans possess an innate language acquisition device. His critique of Skinner’s “Verbal Behavior” helped spark the cognitive revolution in psychology, shifting focus from observable behavior to internal mental processes.
Legacy: Chomsky’s work fundamentally altered our understanding of language acquisition and processing while helping to establish cognitive science as an interdisciplinary field. His emphasis on innate mental structures countered the behaviorist focus on environmental influences alone.

Albert Bandura (1925-2021)

Category: Social Cognitive
Biography: Canadian-American psychologist who spent most of his career at Stanford University. Bandura bridged behaviorist and cognitive approaches through his social learning theory.
Key Contributions: Bandura demonstrated the importance of observational learning and modeling in his famous “Bobo doll” experiments. He developed social cognitive theory, emphasizing how cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors interact to shape behavior. His concept of self-efficacy—belief in one’s ability to succeed—has been widely applied across domains.
Legacy: Bandura’s work helped psychology move beyond strict behaviorism while maintaining scientific rigor. His theories have been applied to education, behavior change, psychotherapy, and public health interventions. Read our in-depth article on Albert Bandura here.

Humanistic Psychology

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Category: Person-Centered
Biography: American psychologist who developed the person-centered approach to therapy and theory. Rogers began his career as a clinical psychologist working with troubled children before developing his influential therapeutic approach.
Key Contributions: Rogers pioneered client-centered (later person-centered) therapy, emphasizing empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness as core conditions for therapeutic change. His work placed the client’s subjective experience at the center of the therapeutic process and emphasized personal growth and self-actualization.
Legacy: Rogers humanized psychotherapy, moving away from the expert-driven approach of psychoanalysis and the mechanistic view of behaviorism. His emphasis on empathy and positive regard has influenced approaches across theoretical orientations, including psychotherapy, education, conflict resolution, and organizational development. Read our in-depth Article on Carl Rogers here.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

Category: Humanistic
Biography: American psychologist who helped establish humanistic psychology as a “third force” alongside psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Maslow taught at institutions including Brooklyn College, Brandeis University, and the Esalen Institute.
Key Contributions: Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs, proposing that basic physiological and safety needs must be met before higher needs for love, esteem, and self-actualization can be addressed. He studied psychological health rather than pathology, researching the characteristics of self-actualized individuals and peak experiences.
Legacy: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has become one of psychology’s most recognizable concepts, influencing fields from education to management. His focus on human potential and psychological health helped establish positive psychology decades later. Read our in-depth Article on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs here.

Leon Festinger (1919-1989)

Category: Social Psychology
Biography: American social psychologist who conducted influential research on cognitive dissonance and social comparison. Festinger taught at prestigious institutions including Stanford University and the New School for Social Research.
Key Contributions: Festinger developed cognitive dissonance theory, which explains how people resolve contradictions between attitudes and behaviors, typically by changing their attitudes. His social comparison theory proposed that people evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparing themselves to others, especially similar others.
Legacy: Festinger’s theories provided fundamental frameworks for understanding attitude change, decision-making, and social influence. Cognitive dissonance theory, in particular, has generated thousands of studies and been applied across numerous domains of psychology.

Stanley Milgram (1933-1984)

Category: Social Psychology
Biography: American social psychologist best known for his controversial obedience experiments. Milgram, who taught at Yale and later Harvard, was influenced by the Holocaust to study the conditions under which people obey harmful orders.
Key Contributions: Milgram’s obedience studies demonstrated that ordinary people could be persuaded to administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to innocent subjects when directed to do so by an authority figure. He also conducted the “small world experiment,” which led to the concept of “six degrees of separation.”
Legacy: Though ethically controversial, Milgram’s obedience research transformed our understanding of human compliance with authority and raised important questions about research ethics. His work has influenced thinking about conformity, authority, personal responsibility, and ethical behavior. Read our in-depth Article on Milgram’s Experiment here

Philip Zimbardo (b. 1933)

Category: Social Psychology
Biography: American psychologist and professor emeritus at Stanford University. Zimbardo is best known for the Stanford Prison Experiment and has been a prominent advocate for ethics in psychological research.
Key Contributions: In the 1971 Stanford Prison Experiment, Zimbardo demonstrated how situational forces could lead ordinary people to engage in cruel behavior when placed in roles of power. Though now criticized for methodological and ethical issues, the experiment highlighted the powerful influence of social roles and situations on behavior.
Legacy: Zimbardo’s work on situational influences has informed understanding of institutional abuse, evil, heroism, and time perspective. He later founded the Heroic Imagination Project to promote prosocial action and resistance to negative situational influences. Read our in-depth Article on Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment here.

Other Influential Figures

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Category: Sociocultural
Biography: Russian psychologist whose work became influential in Western psychology only decades after his premature death from tuberculosis at age 37. Vygotsky worked during a period of intellectual ferment following the Russian Revolution.
Key Contributions: Vygotsky developed sociocultural theory, emphasizing how cognitive development occurs through social interaction and cultural tools, particularly language. His concept of the zone of proximal development—the gap between what a learner can do independently and with assistance—has been especially influential in educational psychology.
Legacy: Vygotsky’s work provided an important counterpoint to Piaget’s more individually focused theory of cognitive development. His emphasis on social and cultural factors in learning has influenced educational practices worldwide, particularly scaffolding approaches to instruction. Read our in-depth Article on Lev Vygotsky here.

Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999)

Category: Developmental
Biography: American-Canadian developmental psychologist who collaborated with John Bowlby to develop attachment theory. Ainsworth conducted groundbreaking observational research in Uganda and Baltimore that helped establish the empirical basis for attachment theory.
Key Contributions: Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation procedure to assess attachment patterns in infants, identifying secure, anxious-ambivalent, and avoidant attachment styles. Her meticulous observational methods demonstrated how different caregiving behaviors influence attachment security.
Legacy: Ainsworth’s research provided empirical support for attachment theory, which has become one of developmental psychology’s most influential frameworks. Her classification of attachment patterns continues to guide research and clinical work with children and families. Read our in-depth Article on Mary Ainsworth here.

Elizabeth Loftus (b. 1944)

Category: Cognitive/Memory
Biography: American cognitive psychologist and expert on human memory, particularly eyewitness testimony and false memories. Loftus has served as an expert witness in numerous high-profile legal cases and is one of the most cited psychologists in the academic literature.
Key Contributions: Loftus’s research demonstrated that memory is reconstructive rather than reproductive. Her studies showed how post-event information, leading questions, and suggestion can alter memory, sometimes creating entirely false memories of events that never occurred.
Legacy: Loftus’s work has transformed understanding of memory in legal contexts, leading to reforms in eyewitness identification procedures and interview techniques. More broadly, her research has challenged simplistic notions of memory as an accurate recording of experience.

Contemporary Influential Psychologists

Daniel Kahneman (b. 1934)

Category: Cognitive/Behavioral Economics
Biography: Israeli-American psychologist who won the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 2002 for his work with Amos Tversky on decision-making under uncertainty. Kahneman spent much of his career at Hebrew University and Princeton.
Key Contributions: Kahneman and Tversky developed prospect theory, demonstrating systematic biases in how people evaluate potential gains and losses. Their research identified numerous cognitive biases and heuristics that influence judgment and decision-making. Kahneman later proposed a dual-process theory distinguishing between fast, intuitive “System 1” thinking and slower, deliberative “System 2” thinking.
Legacy: Kahneman’s work helped establish behavioral economics and has influenced fields from medicine to public policy. His 2011 book “Thinking, Fast and Slow” brought these concepts to a wide audience and continues to shape understanding of human decision-making.

Martin Seligman (b. 1942)

Category: Positive Psychology
Biography: American psychologist who began his career researching learned helplessness before becoming a pioneer of positive psychology. As president of the American Psychological Association in 1998, Seligman made positive psychology his major initiative.
Key Contributions: Seligman’s early research demonstrated how repeated exposure to uncontrollable negative events leads to learned helplessness. He later developed theories of learned optimism and authentic happiness, proposing the PERMA model (Positive emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment) as elements of well-being.
Legacy: Seligman helped establish positive psychology as a significant force within the discipline, shifting focus from pathology to well-being and human flourishing. His approaches to building resilience have been implemented in schools, the military, and corporations worldwide.

Conclusion

The psychologists featured in this guide represent diverse approaches to understanding human thought, emotion, and behavior. From the early pioneers who established psychology as a distinct discipline to contemporary researchers expanding the boundaries of the field, each has contributed unique insights to our understanding of the human mind.

As you continue your studies in psychology, engaging with the original works of these influential figures can deepen your understanding of psychological theory and practice. While some theories have been modified or challenged over time, the fundamental questions these psychologists addressed—how we develop, learn, think, feel, and relate to others—remain at the heart of psychological inquiry.

Psychology continues to evolve as new research methods, technologies, and cross-disciplinary approaches emerge. The legacy of these pioneers provides both historical context and conceptual foundations for understanding these ongoing developments in the science of human behavior and mental processes.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who are the most famous psychologists?

The most famous psychologists include Sigmund Freud (psychoanalysis), B.F. Skinner (behaviorism), Jean Piaget (cognitive development), Carl Rogers (humanistic psychology), Albert Bandura (social learning), Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning), William James (functionalism), and Carl Jung (analytical psychology). These individuals made groundbreaking contributions that fundamentally shaped our understanding of human behavior and mental processes. Their theories continue to influence contemporary psychology, education, therapy, and even popular culture, making them not only historically significant but also relevant to current psychological practice.

Who is considered the father of psychology?

Wilhelm Wundt is generally considered the father of psychology as a formal discipline because he established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879. This event marks the formal beginning of psychology as a separate scientific field distinct from philosophy and physiology. Wundt developed the method of introspection and trained many influential early psychologists. In America, William James is often called the father of American psychology for his influential work and his text “Principles of Psychology” (1890), which helped establish the field in the United States.

What are the main approaches in psychology?

The main approaches in psychology include: (1) Psychodynamic, focusing on unconscious processes and childhood experiences; (2) Behaviorist, emphasizing observable behavior and environmental influences; (3) Cognitive, studying mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving; (4) Humanistic, focusing on personal growth and self-actualization; (5) Biological, examining how the brain and neurotransmitters influence behavior; (6) Evolutionary, studying how evolutionary adaptations shape behavior; (7) Social-cultural, exploring how culture and social interactions influence behavior; and (8) Positive psychology, focusing on wellbeing and human strengths rather than dysfunction.

Which psychologists are important for A-Level psychology?

A-Level psychology typically emphasizes the work of several key psychologists across different approaches: Sigmund Freud and his psychoanalytic theory; behaviorists like Pavlov (classical conditioning), Skinner (operant conditioning), and Bandura (social learning); cognitive psychologists like Piaget (cognitive development) and Baddeley (working memory model); biological psychologists like Raine (brain scans and criminality); developmental psychologists like Bowlby and Ainsworth (attachment theory); social psychologists like Milgram (obedience) and Zimbardo (Stanford Prison Experiment); and humanistic psychologists like Rogers and Maslow. These figures represent the diverse approaches studied at A-Level.

Why is Sigmund Freud so influential in psychology?

Sigmund Freud remains influential because he revolutionized our understanding of the mind by proposing that unconscious forces drive much of human behavior—an idea that fundamentally changed how we understand ourselves. He developed psychoanalysis as both a theory of personality and a therapeutic approach, introducing concepts like the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, psychosexual development, and dream analysis. While many of his specific theories have been criticized or modified, his emphasis on unconscious processes, childhood experiences, and talking therapy has had a lasting impact on psychology, psychiatry, therapy, literature, art, and popular culture.

What is behaviorism and who were its key developers?

Behaviorism is a psychological approach focusing on observable behavior rather than internal mental states, emphasizing how environmental stimuli and consequences shape behavior. Ivan Pavlov laid groundwork with his classical conditioning studies showing how reflexes could be conditioned. John B. Watson established behaviorism formally in 1913, rejecting introspection and arguing psychology should study only observable behavior. B.F. Skinner developed operant conditioning theory, demonstrating how reinforcement and punishment influence behavior. Albert Bandura later expanded behaviorism with social learning theory, showing people learn by observing others, incorporating cognitive elements into behavioral theory.

Which psychologists contributed to our understanding of child development?

Key psychologists in child development include Jean Piaget, who identified cognitive developmental stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational); Lev Vygotsky, who emphasized the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development; Erik Erikson, who outlined eight psychosocial stages across the lifespan; John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth, who developed attachment theory describing children’s bonds with caregivers; Lawrence Kohlberg, who proposed stages of moral development; and Urie Bronfenbrenner, who created the ecological systems theory examining how different environments influence development. These theories collectively provide a comprehensive framework for understanding child development.

What is cognitive psychology and who are its key figures?

Cognitive psychology studies internal mental processes including perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking. Key figures include Ulric Neisser, who published the first cognitive psychology textbook in 1967; George Miller, known for his work on short-term memory capacity; Alan Baddeley, who developed the working memory model; Jean Piaget, who studied cognitive development in children; Noam Chomsky, whose linguistic theories challenged behaviorism; Elizabeth Loftus, who researched memory malleability and eyewitness testimony; Albert Bandura, who developed social cognitive theory; and Daniel Kahneman, whose work on cognitive biases and decision-making earned a Nobel Prize.

How did different psychologists contribute to our understanding of memory?

Multiple psychologists have shaped our understanding of memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus pioneered scientific memory study through his forgetting curve research. Frederic Bartlett demonstrated memory is reconstructive rather than reproductive. George Miller identified the capacity limitations of short-term memory. Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch developed the multi-component working memory model. Elizabeth Loftus revealed how memory can be altered by post-event information, creating false memories. Endel Tulving distinguished between semantic and episodic memory. Eric Kandel researched the neurobiological basis of memory formation. Together, these contributions have created our complex understanding of how memory works.

References

Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). Academic Press.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.
Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge University Press.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. Basic Books.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
Chomsky, N. (1959). Review of verbal behavior by B. F. Skinner. Language, 35(1), 26–58.
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. Teachers College, Columbia University.
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. W. W. Norton & Company.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.
Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams. Franz Deuticke.
James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. Henry Holt and Company.
Jung, C. G. (1921). Psychological types. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263–291.
Kandel, E. R. (2006). In search of memory: The emergence of a new science of mind. W. W. Norton & Company.
Kohlberg, L. (1984). The psychology of moral development: The nature and validity of moral stages. Harper & Row.
Loftus, E. F. (1979). Eyewitness testimony. Harvard University Press.
Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality. Harper & Row.
Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(4), 371–378.
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97.
Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). Oxford University Press.
Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. International Universities Press.
Rogers, C. (1951). Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications, and theory. Houghton Mifflin.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. W. H. Freeman.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Free Press.
Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization of memory (pp. 381–403). Academic Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158–177.
Wundt, W. (1874). Principles of physiological psychology. Wilhelm Engelmann.
Zimbardo, P. G., Haney, C., Banks, W. C., & Jaffe, D. (1973). The mind is a formidable jailer: A Pirandellian prison. The New York Times Magazine, 8, 38–60.