The Science of Learning: How to Study More Effectively

Students who use evidence-based study techniques perform 50% better on delayed tests than those using traditional methods like highlighting and re-reading, yet 87% of learners still rely on these ineffective strategies.

Introduction

Every student has experienced the frustration: hours spent highlighting textbooks, cramming late into the night, only to forget most of the material within days of an exam. Despite investing enormous effort, traditional study methods often fail to deliver lasting learning. The problem isn’t student laziness or lack of intelligence—it’s that most popular study techniques contradict what cognitive science tells us about how the brain actually learns.

Modern neuroscience and educational psychology have revolutionized our understanding of effective learning. Researchers like cognitive psychologist John Dunlosky and memory expert Henry Roediger have identified specific techniques that dramatically improve retention and understanding. Their findings challenge common assumptions about learning while offering evidence-based strategies that can transform academic performance.

This comprehensive guide translates cutting-edge research from cognitive psychology into practical study strategies. You’ll discover eight scientifically-proven principles that optimize how your brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information. Understanding how early brain development shapes learning processes and how memory systems function provides the foundation for implementing these evidence-based techniques effectively.

Why Traditional Study Methods Often Fail

The Learning Styles Myth Debunked

One of the most persistent myths in education is that people learn better when instruction matches their preferred “learning style”—visual, auditory, or kinesthetic. Despite its popularity, this concept lacks scientific support. Pashler et al. (2008) conducted a comprehensive review of learning styles research and found virtually no credible evidence that matching instruction to preferred styles improves learning outcomes.

The learning styles myth is not just ineffective—it’s potentially harmful. When students believe they can only learn in one specific way, they avoid effective study techniques that don’t match their supposed “style.” For instance, a student who considers themselves a “visual learner” might reject highly effective verbal rehearsal strategies, limiting their learning potential.

What cognitive science actually shows is that learning effectiveness depends on matching the study method to the content and the cognitive demands of the task, not to the learner’s preferences. Mathematical concepts benefit from practice with symbols and equations, while language learning requires verbal repetition and conversation. The content dictates the most effective approach, regardless of personal preferences.

Common Study Habits That Waste Time

Research by Karpicke and Roediger (2008) revealed that students consistently choose the least effective study strategies. The most popular methods—highlighting, re-reading, and summarizing—produce minimal learning gains compared to evidence-based alternatives.

Highlighting and underlining create an illusion of learning. Students mistake recognizing highlighted text for actually knowing the material. Dunlosky et al. (2013) rated highlighting as having “low utility” for learning because it doesn’t engage deeper cognitive processes necessary for long-term retention.

Re-reading feels productive but wastes time. Students who re-read chapters multiple times perform worse on tests than those who use active retrieval methods. The familiarity gained from re-reading creates false confidence—students think they know material better than they actually do.

Massed practice (cramming) produces rapid forgetting. While intensive study sessions may help for immediate tests, the knowledge quickly disappears. Spacing study sessions over time creates more durable learning, even when total study time remains constant.

What Cognitive Science Really Shows

Modern learning science reveals that effective study techniques share common characteristics: they require effortful mental processing, engage memory retrieval systems, and create multiple pathways to stored information. These evidence-based strategies often feel more difficult initially because they force the brain to work harder, but this “desirable difficulty” leads to stronger, more durable learning.

Understanding how learning actually works in the brain helps explain why these misconceptions persist. The techniques that feel easiest and most comfortable—like re-reading familiar text—provide minimal cognitive challenge and thus minimal learning benefit. Conversely, methods that create temporary confusion or difficulty, such as testing yourself before you feel ready, promote deeper understanding and better retention.

The diverse ways children approach learning demonstrate that while individual differences exist, they relate more to cognitive development stages and cultural background than to fixed learning style preferences.

The 8 Science-Backed Principles of Effective Learning

Principle 1 – The Spacing Effect: Why Cramming Fails Your Brain

The spacing effect, first documented by Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885, remains one of the most robust findings in learning science. When study sessions are distributed over time rather than massed together, retention improves dramatically. Cepeda et al. (2006) analyzed over 800 experiments and found consistent benefits for spaced practice across different subjects, age groups, and retention intervals.

The brain mechanisms underlying the spacing effect involve memory consolidation processes that occur primarily during sleep. Each time you revisit material after a delay, your brain must actively reconstruct the memory trace, strengthening the neural pathways. This effortful retrieval creates more durable memories than simply recognizing familiar information.

Optimal spacing intervals follow a specific pattern: review material after one day, then three days, then one week, then two weeks, and finally one month. This expanding interval schedule maximizes retention while minimizing study time. Research by Bahrick et al. (1993) showed that spaced study sessions produced better retention 5 years later, even when total study time was less than massed practice groups.

Practical Implementation:

• Start studying for exams at least 3-4 weeks in advance
• Create a review schedule with expanding intervals
• Use apps like Anki or SuperMemo that automate spaced repetition
• Review difficult concepts more frequently than easy ones

Principle 2 – Active Recall: The Testing Effect Revolution

The testing effect demonstrates that retrieving information from memory strengthens learning more than reviewing the same material. Roediger and Karpicke (2006) found that students who practiced recalling information performed 50% better on delayed tests compared to those who spent the same time re-studying.

Brain imaging studies reveal why testing is so powerful. Retrieval practice activates hippocampal regions responsible for memory formation and strengthens connections between different brain areas. This process, called retrieval-induced strengthening, makes memories more accessible and less prone to forgetting.

The benefits of active recall extend beyond simple memorization. Testing promotes transfer of learning to new situations and helps students identify gaps in their knowledge. When you struggle to recall information, you’re forced to recognize what you actually don’t understand rather than maintaining the illusion of knowledge that comes from passive review.

Understanding how memory develops and functions provides insight into why retrieval practice is so effective—it mirrors the natural way our brains encode and access information.

Effective testing strategies include:

• Closing your notes and writing everything you remember about a topic
• Using flashcards with increasingly difficult questions
• Teaching concepts to someone else or explaining them aloud
• Taking practice tests without looking at answers first
• Creating mind maps from memory

Principle 3 – Interleaving: The Power of Mixing It Up

Interleaving involves mixing different types of problems or concepts within a single study session, rather than focusing on one topic at a time (blocked practice). While blocked practice feels more comfortable and produces faster initial learning, interleaved practice leads to better long-term retention and transfer to new situations.

Rohrer and Taylor (2007) demonstrated this effect with mathematics students. Those who practiced mixed problem sets performed 63% better on delayed tests than students who practiced each problem type separately. The benefits appear because interleaving forces learners to actively discriminate between different concepts and solution strategies.

The cognitive mechanisms behind interleaving involve enhanced pattern recognition and reduced cognitive interference. When topics are studied separately, students often rely on contextual cues rather than truly understanding the material. Mixing topics forces deeper processing and helps students learn when to apply different strategies.

However, interleaving is most effective after students have achieved basic competency in each individual skill. Beginning learners benefit from some blocked practice to establish foundational knowledge before moving to mixed practice sessions.

Implementation strategies:

• Mix problem types within homework sessions
• Alternate between different subjects during study periods
• Create practice tests that combine multiple topics
• Review previous material while learning new concepts

Principle 4 – Growth Mindset and Learning from Failure

Carol Dweck’s research on mindset reveals that beliefs about intelligence dramatically affect learning outcomes. Students with a growth mindset—believing that abilities can be developed through effort and strategy—persist longer through challenges and achieve better results than those with fixed mindset beliefs.

The neuroscience of growth mindset shows that the brain remains plastic throughout life. Neuroplasticity research demonstrates that new neural connections form continuously in response to learning experiences. This biological reality supports the growth mindset perspective that intelligence and abilities can be developed rather than being fixed traits.

However, recent research has revealed important nuances to mindset interventions. Simply telling students that intelligence is malleable isn’t enough. Effective growth mindset approaches focus on process praise (“You worked really hard on that problem”) rather than ability praise (“You’re so smart”), and they teach specific strategies for overcoming difficulties.

Learning from failure becomes a crucial skill when approached with a growth mindset. When students view mistakes as information rather than threats, they engage in more effective problem-solving and show greater persistence. Executive function skills development supports this resilience by helping students regulate emotions and maintain focus during challenging learning experiences.

Practical applications:

• Reframe difficulties as brain-building opportunities
• Focus on effort and strategy rather than natural talent
• Analyze mistakes to understand underlying misconceptions
• Set learning goals rather than just performance goals
• Celebrate progress and improvement over absolute achievement

Principle 5 – The Science of Motivation and Goal Setting

Goal-setting theory, developed by Locke and Latham (2002), shows that specific, challenging goals combined with feedback improve performance more than vague intentions or easy targets. The key is finding the optimal level of challenge—difficult enough to be motivating but not so difficult as to be overwhelming.

Effective learning goals have several characteristics: they are specific (naming exact skills or knowledge to acquire), measurable (with clear criteria for success), and time-bound (with deadlines for achievement). Research indicates that goals focused on learning processes rather than performance outcomes lead to better long-term results.

The neuroscience of motivation reveals that goal achievement activates reward centers in the brain, releasing dopamine that reinforces goal-directed behavior. However, this system works best with frequent, small rewards rather than distant, large ones. Breaking major learning objectives into smaller milestones maintains motivation over extended periods.

Self-determination theory adds another crucial element: goals must align with personal values and interests to maintain intrinsic motivation. Students who understand how their learning connects to their broader life goals show greater persistence and deeper engagement with material.

Scaffolding learning experiences helps students progress toward challenging goals by providing appropriate support that gradually decreases as competence increases.

Goal-setting strategies:

• Set both short-term (daily/weekly) and long-term (monthly/semester) learning goals
• Focus on skill development rather than grades or rankings
• Create specific action plans for achieving each goal
• Track progress regularly and adjust strategies based on results
• Connect learning goals to personal interests and career aspirations

Principle 6 – Elaborative Interrogation: The “Why” Method

Elaborative interrogation involves asking “why” questions about facts and concepts being studied. This technique forces learners to connect new information to existing knowledge, creating richer mental representations that improve recall and understanding.

The cognitive benefits of elaborative interrogation stem from its requirement for active, generative processing. Instead of passively receiving information, students must actively construct explanations and make connections. This process activates multiple brain regions and creates more retrieval pathways for stored information.

Research by Pressley et al. (1987) found that students trained in elaborative interrogation performed significantly better on both immediate and delayed tests compared to control groups. The technique is particularly effective for factual learning but also enhances conceptual understanding when applied systematically.

The method works because it mirrors expert thinking patterns. Experts in any field spontaneously ask “why” questions and connect new information to their existing knowledge base. Teaching students to deliberately engage in this process helps them develop more expert-like understanding.

Implementation techniques:

• For each fact you study, ask “Why is this true?”
• Generate explanations connecting new concepts to previously learned material
• Create concept maps showing relationships between ideas
• Explain material using analogies to familiar situations
• Question the logic behind procedures and formulas

Principle 7 – Overcoming Procrastination Through Psychology

Procrastination isn’t a time management problem—it’s an emotion regulation problem. Research by Pychyl and Sirois (2016) reveals that procrastination occurs when people avoid tasks that create negative emotions like anxiety, boredom, or frustration. Understanding this emotional component is crucial for developing effective anti-procrastination strategies.

The neuroscience of procrastination involves conflict between the brain’s limbic system (which seeks immediate reward) and the prefrontal cortex (which manages long-term planning). When study tasks trigger negative emotions, the limbic system overrides rational planning, leading to avoidance behaviors.

Effective interventions address both emotional and cognitive aspects of procrastination. Emotion regulation techniques help students manage negative feelings associated with challenging tasks. Implementation intentions (“If X happens, then I will do Y”) create specific action plans that bypass emotional resistance.

Environmental design also plays a crucial role. Removing distractions and creating study environments associated with positive emotions reduces the cognitive load required to initiate studying. The physical space itself can trigger either approach or avoidance behaviors.

Anti-procrastination strategies:

• Break large tasks into smaller, manageable components
• Use the “two-minute rule”—if something takes less than two minutes, do it immediately
• Create implementation intentions for specific study behaviors
• Design your environment to minimize distractions and maximize focus
• Practice self-compassion when you do procrastinate rather than self-criticism

Principle 8 – Environmental Design for Optimal Learning

Physical learning environments significantly impact cognitive performance. Research by Barrett et al. (2015) found that classroom design factors account for 16% of the variation in student academic progress—a substantial effect comparable to teacher quality differences.

Natural lighting provides the strongest environmental benefit for learning. Exposure to natural light regulates circadian rhythms, improves attention, and reduces eye strain during extended study sessions. When natural light isn’t available, full-spectrum LED lighting that mimics sunlight provides similar benefits.

Temperature control affects cognitive performance in predictable ways. Optimal learning occurs in environments between 68-72°F (20-22°C). Temperatures outside this range impair concentration and memory formation. Individual comfort preferences vary, but maintaining this range maximizes performance for most people.

Biophilic design elements, such as plants or nature views, reduce stress and improve cognitive function. Even small additions like desk plants or nature photographs can provide measurable benefits for attention and memory.

Environmental optimization strategies:

• Study near windows when possible, or invest in quality lighting
• Maintain comfortable temperature and good air circulation
• Include plants or nature images in your study space
• Keep your study area clean and organized
• Create distinct zones for different types of learning activities

Putting It All Together: Your Personalized Learning System

Assessing Your Current Methods

Before implementing new study strategies, honestly evaluate your current approaches. Most students overestimate the effectiveness of their preferred methods and underestimate how much time they spend on low-value activities like re-reading and highlighting.

Keep a learning log for one week, recording what study methods you use, how long you spend on each, and how confident you feel about mastering the material. Compare your subjective confidence ratings with actual test performance to identify gaps between perceived and real learning.

Pay particular attention to which techniques feel easiest versus which produce the best results. Effective learning strategies often feel more difficult initially because they require greater mental effort. This “desirable difficulty” is a sign that your brain is working hard to form stronger memories.

Creating Your Science-Based Study Plan

An effective study plan integrates multiple evidence-based techniques rather than relying on any single method. Start by scheduling spaced review sessions for all courses, using expanding intervals to optimize retention. Then incorporate active recall techniques into each study session.

Begin each study session with retrieval practice from the previous session. This strengthens existing memories while identifying areas that need additional attention. Follow this with new material using elaborative interrogation to connect concepts to existing knowledge.

End study sessions with interleaved practice that mixes current topics with material from previous units. This approach reinforces the discrimination between different concepts while maintaining access to previously learned information.

Sample weekly schedule:

• Monday: New material with elaborative interrogation + spaced review of last week’s content
• Wednesday: Active recall practice + interleaved problem sets
• Friday: Mixed review session combining multiple topics + planning next week’s goals
• Sunday: Reflection on progress and adjustment of study strategies

Common Implementation Challenges and Solutions

Challenge: “Evidence-based techniques feel too hard” Solution: Start with shorter sessions and gradually increase difficulty. The initial challenge decreases as these methods become habitual.

Challenge: “I don’t have time for spaced practice” Solution: Spaced practice actually saves time by reducing the need for re-learning. Even brief 10-minute review sessions provide substantial benefits.

Challenge: “I can’t tell if these methods are working” Solution: Use practice testing to get objective feedback on your learning. Compare performance before and after implementing new techniques.

Understanding how different cognitive development stages affect learning can help you adapt these strategies to your current capabilities and adjust expectations appropriately.

Advanced Applications and Technology Integration

Digital Tools That Support Science-Based Learning

Technology can enhance evidence-based learning when used strategically. Spaced repetition software like Anki, SuperMemo, or Quizlet automate the timing of review sessions based on forgetting curves. These tools adjust intervals based on your performance, ensuring optimal spacing without manual scheduling.

Practice testing apps provide immediate feedback and track progress over time. Apps like Kahoot, Socrative, or built-in learning management system quizzes offer convenient ways to implement retrieval practice. The key is using these tools for genuine testing rather than just recognition exercises.

Note-taking applications like Obsidian or Roam Research support elaborative interrogation by making it easy to create connections between concepts. These tools visualize knowledge networks and help identify gaps in understanding.

However, technology should supplement, not replace, fundamental learning strategies. The most sophisticated app cannot overcome poor study habits or lack of effort. Focus on implementing evidence-based techniques first, then use technology to enhance their effectiveness.

Adapting Techniques for Online Learning

Online learning environments require modifications to traditional study strategies but can still incorporate all evidence-based principles. Spaced practice becomes even more important in self-directed online courses where students must create their own review schedules.

Active recall works particularly well in online settings through discussion forums, self-explanation videos, or virtual study groups. Students can test each other’s knowledge through video calls or shared documents that require memory retrieval rather than reference lookup.

Interleaving can be implemented by mixing different online modules or creating cross-course connections. Instead of completing one entire course before starting another, alternate between related subjects to enhance discrimination and transfer.

Executive function skills become particularly important in online learning environments where students must self-regulate attention and manage distractions without external structure.

Measuring Your Progress Scientifically

Effective measurement goes beyond grades to include learning efficiency, retention over time, and transfer to new situations. Track how long it takes to master new concepts and monitor whether this time decreases as you develop better study strategies.

Use delayed testing to measure true retention. Quiz yourself on material one week, one month, and three months after initial learning. This reveals whether you’re developing durable knowledge or just temporary familiarity.

Monitor transfer by applying learned concepts to novel problems or situations not directly covered in your study materials. True understanding enables application beyond the specific examples you’ve practiced.

Keep detailed records of which study techniques work best for different types of material. This personal data helps optimize your learning system over time and builds metacognitive awareness of your own learning processes.

Troubleshooting Your Learning: When Science Meets Reality

Adapting for Different Learning Difficulties

Students with attention challenges can benefit from shorter, more frequent study sessions that align with their natural attention spans. Breaking hour-long study blocks into four 15-minute sessions with brief breaks often produces better results than forcing sustained attention.

For students with working memory limitations, external memory aids become crucial. Written outlines, concept maps, and step-by-step procedures reduce cognitive load and allow focus on learning rather than remembering instructions.

Students with reading difficulties can implement evidence-based techniques through alternative modalities. Audio recordings, visual diagrams, and hands-on activities provide multiple pathways for encoding the same information.

The key principle is that learning difficulties change implementation strategies but don’t eliminate the effectiveness of evidence-based techniques. Spaced practice, active recall, and elaborative interrogation work regardless of learning differences—they just require thoughtful adaptation.

Subject-Specific Modifications

Mathematics and Sciences: Focus heavily on interleaved problem practice and worked examples. Space problem-solving sessions and emphasize understanding underlying principles rather than memorizing procedures.

Languages: Prioritize spaced repetition for vocabulary and active recall through conversation practice. Interleave different grammar concepts and use elaborative interrogation to understand language patterns.

History and Social Sciences: Emphasize elaborative interrogation to understand cause-and-effect relationships. Create timelines that interleave different historical periods and practice retrieval of key dates and events.

Literature and Writing: Use active recall to summarize texts from memory and practice elaborative interrogation to analyze themes and character motivations. Space reading and writing practice over time rather than cramming assignments.

Maintaining Long-Term Consistency

The biggest challenge in implementing evidence-based study techniques is maintaining consistency over months and years. Initial motivation often fades when techniques feel difficult or when immediate results aren’t obvious.

Create implementation systems that reduce reliance on motivation. Schedule specific times for spaced review, create environmental cues that trigger study behaviors, and use tracking systems that provide regular feedback on progress.

Build study habits gradually rather than attempting dramatic overnight changes. Start with one evidence-based technique and practice it consistently for several weeks before adding additional strategies.

Connect your learning goals to broader life purposes and values. Understanding how improved learning supports personal growth, career advancement, or contribution to society provides intrinsic motivation that sustains effort over time.

Social learning contexts can provide accountability and support for maintaining effective study practices. Study groups, learning partners, or online communities help sustain motivation and provide opportunities to teach others, which further strengthens your own learning.

Conclusion

The science of learning reveals a clear path from struggling student to confident learner. By replacing ineffective habits like highlighting and cramming with evidence-based techniques such as spaced repetition, active recall, and interleaving, you can dramatically improve both learning efficiency and long-term retention.

The eight principles outlined in this guide aren’t just theoretical concepts—they represent decades of cognitive research translated into practical strategies. Start with one technique, such as replacing re-reading with practice testing, and gradually incorporate additional methods as they become habitual. Remember that effective learning strategies often feel more challenging initially because they require genuine mental effort, but this “desirable difficulty” creates stronger, more durable memories.

Success depends not on perfect implementation but on consistent application of these science-backed principles. Your brain’s remarkable capacity for learning and adaptation means that investing in effective study strategies today will compound into greater academic achievement, deeper understanding, and more efficient learning throughout your life.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the most effective revision method?

Active recall through practice testing consistently outperforms all other study methods. Research by Roediger and Karpicke (2006) found that students who practiced retrieving information from memory scored 50% higher on delayed tests compared to those who re-read material. Close your notes and write everything you remember about a topic, then check for gaps and repeat.

What is the 2 3 5 7 rule for revision?

The 2 3 5 7 rule is a spaced repetition schedule where you review material after 2 days, then 3 days, 5 days, and 7 days. This technique exploits the spacing effect, which shows distributed practice creates stronger memories than cramming. The expanding intervals optimize retention while minimizing total study time by reviewing information just before you would forget it.

What is the 2 3 5 7 revision technique?

The 2 3 5 7 technique involves studying new material, then reviewing it following specific time intervals: 2 days later, then 3 days after that review, followed by 5 days, then 7 days. This pattern can extend to 2-3-5-7-14-30 days for long-term retention. Research by Bahrick et al. (1993) showed spaced schedules produce better retention five years later than massed practice.

What is the best revision technique?

No single technique works best for all situations. The most effective approach combines multiple evidence-based methods: spaced repetition for memorization, active recall for strengthening memories, interleaving for discrimination between concepts, and elaborative interrogation for deeper understanding. Match the technique to your learning goals and the type of material being studied.

How long should study sessions be for optimal learning?

Research suggests 25-50 minute focused study sessions with 5-10 minute breaks optimize attention and retention. This aligns with natural attention spans and prevents mental fatigue. Shorter sessions (15-20 minutes) work better for difficult material or when starting new study habits, while longer sessions (45-90 minutes) suit subjects requiring deep concentration like mathematics or writing.

Why doesn’t highlighting and re-reading work for studying?

Highlighting and re-reading create an illusion of learning without engaging deeper cognitive processes necessary for retention. These passive methods don’t require mental effort, so the brain doesn’t prioritize storing the information. Dunlosky et al. (2013) rated highlighting as having “low utility” because it fails to create the retrieval pathways that active methods like testing and self-explanation develop.

How can I overcome procrastination when studying?

Procrastination stems from emotion regulation problems, not time management issues. Break large tasks into smaller components, use implementation intentions (“When X happens, I will do Y”), and address negative emotions associated with studying. Create environmental cues that trigger study behavior and practice self-compassion rather than self-criticism when you do procrastinate.

What’s the difference between growth mindset and fixed mindset in learning?

Growth mindset believes abilities develop through effort and strategy, while fixed mindset views intelligence as unchangeable. Students with growth mindset persist longer through challenges and achieve better results. Focus on process praise (“You worked hard on that problem”) rather than ability praise (“You’re so smart”) to develop growth mindset approaches to learning.

References

Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, L. E., Bahrick, A. S., & Bahrick, P. E. (1993). Maintenance of foreign language vocabulary and the spacing effect. Psychological Science, 4(5), 316-321.

Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015). The impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning: Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118-133.

Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354-380.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning. Science, 319(5865), 966-968.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705-717.

Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(3), 105-119.

Pressley, M., McDaniel, M. A., Turnure, J. E., Wood, E., & Ahmad, M. (1987). Generation and precision of elaboration: Effects on intentional and incidental learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13(2), 291-300.

Pychyl, T. A., & Sirois, F. M. (2016). Procrastination, emotion regulation, and well-being. In F. M. Sirois & T. A. Pychyl (Eds.), Procrastination, health, and well-being (pp. 163-188). Academic Press.

Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science, 17(3), 249-255.

Rohrer, D., & Taylor, K. (2007). The shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning. Instructional Science, 35(6), 481-498.

Further Reading and Research

Recommended Articles

• Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.
• Roediger, H. L., Putnam, A. L., & Smith, M. A. (2011). Ten benefits of testing and their applications to educational practice. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 55, 1-36.
• Agarwal, P. K., & Bain, P. M. (2019). Powerful teaching: Unleash the science of learning. Jossey-Bass.

Suggested Books

• Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L., & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning. Harvard University Press.
  • Comprehensive guide translating cognitive research into practical study strategies for students and educators
• Dunlosky, J. (2013). Strengthening the Student Toolbox: Study Strategies to Boost Learning. American Educator, 37(3), 12-21.
  • Evidence-based analysis of study techniques with practical implementation guidance for students
• Weinstein, Y., Madan, C. R., & Sumeracki, M. A. (2018). Teaching the Science of Learning. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3(1), 2.
  • Research-backed strategies for implementing learning science principles in educational settings

Recommended Websites

• The Learning Scientists
  • Evidence-based study strategies, downloadable resources, and research summaries for students and educators
• Retrieval Practice (www.retrievalpractice.org)
  • Comprehensive resources on implementing testing effects with practical tools and research updates
• Centre for Educational Neuroscience (www.educationalneuroscience.org.uk)
  • Research findings on how brain science informs educational practice with practical applications

Kathy Brodie

Kathy Brodie is an Early Years Professional, Trainer and Author of multiple books on Early Years Education and Child Development. She is the founder of Early Years TV and the Early Years Summit.

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To cite this article please use:

Early Years TV The Science of Learning: How to Study More Effectively. Available at: https://www.earlyyears.tv/study-revision-methods-guide/ (Accessed: 12 October 2025).